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Chapter 7 Art For Art's Sake? Commodifying The Commons In: The Art Of The Creative Commons
One of the most important discoveries and creative developments that is playing a vital role in the professional world today is blockchain technology. Blockchain technology moves in the direction of persistent revolution and change. It is a chain of blocks that covers information and maintains trust between individuals no matter how far they are. In the last couple of years, the upsurge in blockchain technology has obliged scholars and specialists to scrutinize new ways to apply blockchain technology with a wide range of domains. The dramatic increase in blockchain technology has provided many new application opportunities, including healthcare applications. This survey provides a comprehensive review of emerging blockchain-based healthcare technologies and related applications. In this inquiry, we call attention to the open research matters in this fast-growing field, explaining them in some details. We also show the potential of blockchain technology in revolutionizing healthcare industry.
The rapid uptake of digitization in healthcare has led to the generation of massive electronic records about patients. Such growth poses unprecedented demands for healthcare data protection while in use and exchange. The rise of blockchain technology as a responsible and transparent mechanism to store and distribute data is paving the way for new potentials of solving serious data privacy, security, and integrity issues in healthcare. Blockchain technology has attracted considerable attention from industry as well as academics over the past few years. Indeed, new blockchain applications and research studies surface every day [1, 2, 3, 4]. A blockchain technology is identified as a distributed ledger technology for peer-to-peer (P2P) network digital data transactions that may be publicly or privately distributed to all users, allowing any type of data to be stored in a reliable and verifiable way [1, 5]. Another main concept of the blockchain is the smart contract, a legally binding policy that consists of customizable set of rules under which different parties agree to interact among each other in the form of decentralized automation [6, 7]. The blockchain technology has given rise to numerous smart contract applications in several areas, ranging from energy resources [8], financial services [9, 10], voting [11, 12, 13] and healthcare [6]. Blockchain technology offers transparency and eradicates the need for third-party administrators or intermediaries [1]. It uses consensus mechanisms and cryptography to verify the legitimacy of a transaction in a trustless and unreliable environment [1, 14]. In a blockchain distributed P2P network of transactions, the receiving node checks the message; if the message is correct, then it stores it in a block. A consensus algorithm is then used to confirm the data in each block; this is called ”Proof-of-work (PoW)”. The block will be added into the chain after performing the consensus algorithm, every node in the network admits this block and incessantly spreads the chain [15, 16]. One of the most prominent applications of blockchain technology is healthcare. The potential of blockchain in healthcare is to overcome the challenges related to data security, privacy, sharing and storage [17, 18]. One of the requirements for the healthcare industry is Interoperability. It is the ability of two parties, either human or machine, to exchange data or information precisely, efficiently, and consistently [19, 20, 21, 22]. The goal of interoperability in healthcare is to facilitate the exchange of health-related information, such as electronic health record (EHR), among healthcare providers and patients so that the data can be shared throughout the environment and distributed by different hospital systems [23, 24, 25, 26]. Moreover, interoperability enables providers to securely share patient medical records (given patient permissions to do so), regardless of the provider’s location and trust relationships between them [27]. This is specifically important considering that the source of healthcare data is diverse. This aspect of interoperability is resolved by using blockchain technology which showed potential to store, manage, and share EHRs safely amongst healthcare communities [28]. Additionally, increasing costs of healthcare infrastructures and software in the industry have caused tremendous pressure on world economies [29]. In the healthcare sector, blockchain technology is positively affecting healthcare outcomes of companies and stakeholders to optimize business processes, improve patient outcomes, patient data management, enhance compliance, lower costs, and enable better use of healthcare-related data [30]. Equally important is the ability of blockchain technology to influence the flow of drugs and medical equipment in a long complicated healthcare supply chain. A blockchain for the healthcare supply chain promises to eliminate the risk of counterfeited drugs that endanger patients across the globe. Blockchain technology is currently being explored across various healthcare applications such as data management, storage, devices connectivity and security in the internet of medical things (IoMT). Most benefits provided by blockchain technology in the above-mentioned application areas impacted positively quality of experience (QoE) of most stakeholders and end users, including patients, care givers, researchers, pharmaceutical companies, and insurance companies. The ability to share healthcare data without the risk of jeopardizing users’ privacy and data security is one essential step to make the healthcare system smarter and improve the quality of healthcare services and users’ experience. The purpose of this paper is to provide a timely review on the applications of blockchain technology in healthcare and their impact on healthcare economies, QoE, and new business opportunities.
There are currently several review papers in the open literature dealing with the application of blockchain technology in domains such as finance [31, 32, 33, 34], internet of things (IoT) [35, 36, 37, 38, 39], energy sector [8, 40, 41], government [42, 43, 44], and privacy and security [15, 45, 46, 47]. While a few review papers are addressing the applications of blockchain technology in healthcare, a broad comprehensive critical review of the most recent research on blockchain-based healthcare applications is not covered. For example, the work presented by Mettler [48] provides a short review of healthcare applications that use blockchain technology. The study considers only three areas, public health management, user-oriented medical, and drug counterfeiting. Although the study was the first to present a high level review of emerging blockchain-based healthcare applications, it focuses mainly on functional aspects and benefits of such technology. In 2017, Kuo et al. [49] published another review paper on healthcare and biomedical applications based on blockchain technology. The work in Kuo et al. [49] mainly discusses traditional blockchain technology (bitcoin features) and its architecture. Then, the authors describe some aspects of blockchain technology for medical record management, insurance claim process, biomedical research, and health data ledger. In addition, the authors did not explain the technical aspects on how knowledge would be centrally distributed. In a similar study, Stagnaro et al. [50] describe some use cases for applying blockchain technology in healthcare. The use cases were particularly focusing on interoperability claims adjunction and patient care records, as well as supply chain management (SCM). The main shortcoming of the study is the limitation of use cases, and does not narrowly track novel blockchain based healthcare applications. Hölbl et al. [51] provide an organized analysis of healthcare applications that use blockchain technology. The authors discussed a number of published articles in this domain from 2008 to 2019 and provided a systematic literature review. However, it does not critically assess the experiments conducted in the studied application domains. In another related work, Radanović and Likić [52] reviewed blockchain technology in medicine, including health insurance, EHRs, drug supply, biomedical research, procurement processes, and medical education. Similar to other surveys, the paper did not study some of the important blockchain-based healthcare applications, such as smart contract, data sharing, interoperability and cloud storage. Siyal et al. [53] discussed several blockchain-based healthcare applications, including fraud detection, neuroscience research, clinical research, and EHR. The main issue in Siyal et al. [53] work is that many recently published papers were not included. McGhin et al. [54] provided a review on healthcare industry requirements to protect patients’ medical information using blockchain. This survey [54] discussed limited applications for healthcare such as OmniPHR [55], Medrec [56], Pervasive social network (PSN) [57], MeDshare [58] and Healthcare
Zimrii Music Blockchain And Music
One of the most important discoveries and creative developments that is playing a vital role in the professional world today is blockchain technology. Blockchain technology moves in the direction of persistent revolution and change. It is a chain of blocks that covers information and maintains trust between individuals no matter how far they are. In the last couple of years, the upsurge in blockchain technology has obliged scholars and specialists to scrutinize new ways to apply blockchain technology with a wide range of domains. The dramatic increase in blockchain technology has provided many new application opportunities, including healthcare applications. This survey provides a comprehensive review of emerging blockchain-based healthcare technologies and related applications. In this inquiry, we call attention to the open research matters in this fast-growing field, explaining them in some details. We also show the potential of blockchain technology in revolutionizing healthcare industry.
The rapid uptake of digitization in healthcare has led to the generation of massive electronic records about patients. Such growth poses unprecedented demands for healthcare data protection while in use and exchange. The rise of blockchain technology as a responsible and transparent mechanism to store and distribute data is paving the way for new potentials of solving serious data privacy, security, and integrity issues in healthcare. Blockchain technology has attracted considerable attention from industry as well as academics over the past few years. Indeed, new blockchain applications and research studies surface every day [1, 2, 3, 4]. A blockchain technology is identified as a distributed ledger technology for peer-to-peer (P2P) network digital data transactions that may be publicly or privately distributed to all users, allowing any type of data to be stored in a reliable and verifiable way [1, 5]. Another main concept of the blockchain is the smart contract, a legally binding policy that consists of customizable set of rules under which different parties agree to interact among each other in the form of decentralized automation [6, 7]. The blockchain technology has given rise to numerous smart contract applications in several areas, ranging from energy resources [8], financial services [9, 10], voting [11, 12, 13] and healthcare [6]. Blockchain technology offers transparency and eradicates the need for third-party administrators or intermediaries [1]. It uses consensus mechanisms and cryptography to verify the legitimacy of a transaction in a trustless and unreliable environment [1, 14]. In a blockchain distributed P2P network of transactions, the receiving node checks the message; if the message is correct, then it stores it in a block. A consensus algorithm is then used to confirm the data in each block; this is called ”Proof-of-work (PoW)”. The block will be added into the chain after performing the consensus algorithm, every node in the network admits this block and incessantly spreads the chain [15, 16]. One of the most prominent applications of blockchain technology is healthcare. The potential of blockchain in healthcare is to overcome the challenges related to data security, privacy, sharing and storage [17, 18]. One of the requirements for the healthcare industry is Interoperability. It is the ability of two parties, either human or machine, to exchange data or information precisely, efficiently, and consistently [19, 20, 21, 22]. The goal of interoperability in healthcare is to facilitate the exchange of health-related information, such as electronic health record (EHR), among healthcare providers and patients so that the data can be shared throughout the environment and distributed by different hospital systems [23, 24, 25, 26]. Moreover, interoperability enables providers to securely share patient medical records (given patient permissions to do so), regardless of the provider’s location and trust relationships between them [27]. This is specifically important considering that the source of healthcare data is diverse. This aspect of interoperability is resolved by using blockchain technology which showed potential to store, manage, and share EHRs safely amongst healthcare communities [28]. Additionally, increasing costs of healthcare infrastructures and software in the industry have caused tremendous pressure on world economies [29]. In the healthcare sector, blockchain technology is positively affecting healthcare outcomes of companies and stakeholders to optimize business processes, improve patient outcomes, patient data management, enhance compliance, lower costs, and enable better use of healthcare-related data [30]. Equally important is the ability of blockchain technology to influence the flow of drugs and medical equipment in a long complicated healthcare supply chain. A blockchain for the healthcare supply chain promises to eliminate the risk of counterfeited drugs that endanger patients across the globe. Blockchain technology is currently being explored across various healthcare applications such as data management, storage, devices connectivity and security in the internet of medical things (IoMT). Most benefits provided by blockchain technology in the above-mentioned application areas impacted positively quality of experience (QoE) of most stakeholders and end users, including patients, care givers, researchers, pharmaceutical companies, and insurance companies. The ability to share healthcare data without the risk of jeopardizing users’ privacy and data security is one essential step to make the healthcare system smarter and improve the quality of healthcare services and users’ experience. The purpose of this paper is to provide a timely review on the applications of blockchain technology in healthcare and their impact on healthcare economies, QoE, and new business opportunities.
There are currently several review papers in the open literature dealing with the application of blockchain technology in domains such as finance [31, 32, 33, 34], internet of things (IoT) [35, 36, 37, 38, 39], energy sector [8, 40, 41], government [42, 43, 44], and privacy and security [15, 45, 46, 47]. While a few review papers are addressing the applications of blockchain technology in healthcare, a broad comprehensive critical review of the most recent research on blockchain-based healthcare applications is not covered. For example, the work presented by Mettler [48] provides a short review of healthcare applications that use blockchain technology. The study considers only three areas, public health management, user-oriented medical, and drug counterfeiting. Although the study was the first to present a high level review of emerging blockchain-based healthcare applications, it focuses mainly on functional aspects and benefits of such technology. In 2017, Kuo et al. [49] published another review paper on healthcare and biomedical applications based on blockchain technology. The work in Kuo et al. [49] mainly discusses traditional blockchain technology (bitcoin features) and its architecture. Then, the authors describe some aspects of blockchain technology for medical record management, insurance claim process, biomedical research, and health data ledger. In addition, the authors did not explain the technical aspects on how knowledge would be centrally distributed. In a similar study, Stagnaro et al. [50] describe some use cases for applying blockchain technology in healthcare. The use cases were particularly focusing on interoperability claims adjunction and patient care records, as well as supply chain management (SCM). The main shortcoming of the study is the limitation of use cases, and does not narrowly track novel blockchain based healthcare applications. Hölbl et al. [51] provide an organized analysis of healthcare applications that use blockchain technology. The authors discussed a number of published articles in this domain from 2008 to 2019 and provided a systematic literature review. However, it does not critically assess the experiments conducted in the studied application domains. In another related work, Radanović and Likić [52] reviewed blockchain technology in medicine, including health insurance, EHRs, drug supply, biomedical research, procurement processes, and medical education. Similar to other surveys, the paper did not study some of the important blockchain-based healthcare applications, such as smart contract, data sharing, interoperability and cloud storage. Siyal et al. [53] discussed several blockchain-based healthcare applications, including fraud detection, neuroscience research, clinical research, and EHR. The main issue in Siyal et al. [53] work is that many recently published papers were not included. McGhin et al. [54] provided a review on healthcare industry requirements to protect patients’ medical information using blockchain. This survey [54] discussed limited applications for healthcare such as OmniPHR [55], Medrec [56], Pervasive social network (PSN) [57], MeDshare [58] and Healthcare
Zimrii Music Blockchain And Music
One of the most important discoveries and creative developments that is playing a vital role in the professional world today is blockchain technology. Blockchain technology moves in the direction of persistent revolution and change. It is a chain of blocks that covers information and maintains trust between individuals no matter how far they are. In the last couple of years, the upsurge in blockchain technology has obliged scholars and specialists to scrutinize new ways to apply blockchain technology with a wide range of domains. The dramatic increase in blockchain technology has provided many new application opportunities, including healthcare applications. This survey provides a comprehensive review of emerging blockchain-based healthcare technologies and related applications. In this inquiry, we call attention to the open research matters in this fast-growing field, explaining them in some details. We also show the potential of blockchain technology in revolutionizing healthcare industry.
The rapid uptake of digitization in healthcare has led to the generation of massive electronic records about patients. Such growth poses unprecedented demands for healthcare data protection while in use and exchange. The rise of blockchain technology as a responsible and transparent mechanism to store and distribute data is paving the way for new potentials of solving serious data privacy, security, and integrity issues in healthcare. Blockchain technology has attracted considerable attention from industry as well as academics over the past few years. Indeed, new blockchain applications and research studies surface every day [1, 2, 3, 4]. A blockchain technology is identified as a distributed ledger technology for peer-to-peer (P2P) network digital data transactions that may be publicly or privately distributed to all users, allowing any type of data to be stored in a reliable and verifiable way [1, 5]. Another main concept of the blockchain is the smart contract, a legally binding policy that consists of customizable set of rules under which different parties agree to interact among each other in the form of decentralized automation [6, 7]. The blockchain technology has given rise to numerous smart contract applications in several areas, ranging from energy resources [8], financial services [9, 10], voting [11, 12, 13] and healthcare [6]. Blockchain technology offers transparency and eradicates the need for third-party administrators or intermediaries [1]. It uses consensus mechanisms and cryptography to verify the legitimacy of a transaction in a trustless and unreliable environment [1, 14]. In a blockchain distributed P2P network of transactions, the receiving node checks the message; if the message is correct, then it stores it in a block. A consensus algorithm is then used to confirm the data in each block; this is called ”Proof-of-work (PoW)”. The block will be added into the chain after performing the consensus algorithm, every node in the network admits this block and incessantly spreads the chain [15, 16]. One of the most prominent applications of blockchain technology is healthcare. The potential of blockchain in healthcare is to overcome the challenges related to data security, privacy, sharing and storage [17, 18]. One of the requirements for the healthcare industry is Interoperability. It is the ability of two parties, either human or machine, to exchange data or information precisely, efficiently, and consistently [19, 20, 21, 22]. The goal of interoperability in healthcare is to facilitate the exchange of health-related information, such as electronic health record (EHR), among healthcare providers and patients so that the data can be shared throughout the environment and distributed by different hospital systems [23, 24, 25, 26]. Moreover, interoperability enables providers to securely share patient medical records (given patient permissions to do so), regardless of the provider’s location and trust relationships between them [27]. This is specifically important considering that the source of healthcare data is diverse. This aspect of interoperability is resolved by using blockchain technology which showed potential to store, manage, and share EHRs safely amongst healthcare communities [28]. Additionally, increasing costs of healthcare infrastructures and software in the industry have caused tremendous pressure on world economies [29]. In the healthcare sector, blockchain technology is positively affecting healthcare outcomes of companies and stakeholders to optimize business processes, improve patient outcomes, patient data management, enhance compliance, lower costs, and enable better use of healthcare-related data [30]. Equally important is the ability of blockchain technology to influence the flow of drugs and medical equipment in a long complicated healthcare supply chain. A blockchain for the healthcare supply chain promises to eliminate the risk of counterfeited drugs that endanger patients across the globe. Blockchain technology is currently being explored across various healthcare applications such as data management, storage, devices connectivity and security in the internet of medical things (IoMT). Most benefits provided by blockchain technology in the above-mentioned application areas impacted positively quality of experience (QoE) of most stakeholders and end users, including patients, care givers, researchers, pharmaceutical companies, and insurance companies. The ability to share healthcare data without the risk of jeopardizing users’ privacy and data security is one essential step to make the healthcare system smarter and improve the quality of healthcare services and users’ experience. The purpose of this paper is to provide a timely review on the applications of blockchain technology in healthcare and their impact on healthcare economies, QoE, and new business opportunities.
There are currently several review papers in the open literature dealing with the application of blockchain technology in domains such as finance [31, 32, 33, 34], internet of things (IoT) [35, 36, 37, 38, 39], energy sector [8, 40, 41], government [42, 43, 44], and privacy and security [15, 45, 46, 47]. While a few review papers are addressing the applications of blockchain technology in healthcare, a broad comprehensive critical review of the most recent research on blockchain-based healthcare applications is not covered. For example, the work presented by Mettler [48] provides a short review of healthcare applications that use blockchain technology. The study considers only three areas, public health management, user-oriented medical, and drug counterfeiting. Although the study was the first to present a high level review of emerging blockchain-based healthcare applications, it focuses mainly on functional aspects and benefits of such technology. In 2017, Kuo et al. [49] published another review paper on healthcare and biomedical applications based on blockchain technology. The work in Kuo et al. [49] mainly discusses traditional blockchain technology (bitcoin features) and its architecture. Then, the authors describe some aspects of blockchain technology for medical record management, insurance claim process, biomedical research, and health data ledger. In addition, the authors did not explain the technical aspects on how knowledge would be centrally distributed. In a similar study, Stagnaro et al. [50] describe some use cases for applying blockchain technology in healthcare. The use cases were particularly focusing on interoperability claims adjunction and patient care records, as well as supply chain management (SCM). The main shortcoming of the study is the limitation of use cases, and does not narrowly track novel blockchain based healthcare applications. Hölbl et al. [51] provide an organized analysis of healthcare applications that use blockchain technology. The authors discussed a number of published articles in this domain from 2008 to 2019 and provided a systematic literature review. However, it does not critically assess the experiments conducted in the studied application domains. In another related work, Radanović and Likić [52] reviewed blockchain technology in medicine, including health insurance, EHRs, drug supply, biomedical research, procurement processes, and medical education. Similar to other surveys, the paper did not study some of the important blockchain-based healthcare applications, such as smart contract, data sharing, interoperability and cloud storage. Siyal et al. [53] discussed several blockchain-based healthcare applications, including fraud detection, neuroscience research, clinical research, and EHR. The main issue in Siyal et al. [53] work is that many recently published papers were not included. McGhin et al. [54] provided a review on healthcare industry requirements to protect patients’ medical information using blockchain. This survey [54] discussed limited applications for healthcare such as OmniPHR [55], Medrec [56], Pervasive social network (PSN) [57], MeDshare [58] and Healthcare
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